cloudstack/draft-THREAT-MODEL.md

Apache CloudStack Security Threat Model (draft)

Document scope and PMC structural decision. The CloudStack PMC owns five repositories: apache/cloudstack (the management server, agent, and systemvm), plus four satellite clients — apache/cloudstack-cloudmonkey (CLI), apache/cloudstack-go (Go SDK), apache/cloudstack-terraform-provider, apache/cloudstack-kubernetes-provider. This document models apache/cloudstack as the canonical threat model; the four satellite models are short deltas that inherit §3 / §4 / §7 from this document and add only what each satellite uniquely introduces (§4 B1 reachability, the credential file shape, the wrapper-of-SDK contract, etc.). The deltas live at /tmp/claude/cloudstack-<repo>-threat-model-draft.md. The satellite clients' interfaces point inward at the management-server API; some satellites additionally expose outward interfaces that are designed to be safe to expose (maintainer: DaanHoogland). An umbrella model was rejected because the satellites are uniformly thin "HMAC-SHA1-signing HTTP client" wrappers — a single document either drowns them in CloudStack-server content or, worse, drowns the CloudStack-server content in satellite caveats. Each satellite is small enough that a 1–2 page delta works.

§1 Header

• Project: Apache CloudStack (apache/cloudstack) — IaaS orchestration platform. This document does not cover the four satellite repos, which carry their own delta models.
• Commit: 7308dad1 (HEAD of main at draft time).
• Date: 2026-05-29.
• Authors: ASF Security team draft, awaiting CloudStack PMC review.
• Status: Draft — under maintainer review.
• Version binding: This document describes the model as of the commit above. A vulnerability report against CloudStack release N (currently the 4.20.x line) should be triaged against the model as it stood at N's release tag, not against HEAD.
• Reporting: vulnerabilities that fall under §8 (claimed properties) should be reported per the project's published policy (security@apache.org per README.md and https://cloudstack.apache.org/security.html); reports that fall under §3 (out of scope), §9 (properties not provided), or §11a (known non-findings) will be closed by CloudStack triagers citing this document.
• Provenance legend — (documented) = paraphrased from an in-repo source or the project website with citation; (maintainer) = stated by a CloudStack PMC member in response to this draft; (inferred) = synthesized by the producer from code structure or domain knowledge, awaiting PMC ratification (every (inferred) tag has a matching §14 question).
• Draft confidence (provenance-tag tally): 51 (documented) / 42 (maintainer) / 38 (inferred). Eleven formerly-open questions (Q1, Q2, Q4, Q5, Q12 — including the highest-leverage Root-CA strictness default — plus Q8, Q9, Q10, Q17, Q18, Q19 from the 2026-06-08 review) were resolved by the CloudStack PMC review (DaanHoogland, vishesh92) and their tags promoted from (inferred) to (maintainer).

About the project. Apache CloudStack is an open-source Infrastructure-as-a- Service (IaaS) orchestration platform (documented: README.md, https://cloudstack.apache.org/). It deploys and manages large fleets of virtual machines across multiple hypervisors (KVM, VMware, XenServer/XCP-ng, Hyper-V, baremetal-bridge, OVM) and over object/block/file storage (NFS, Ceph/RBD, iSCSI, SMB, primary-storage plugins, S3-compatible secondary storage). A central management server (Java/Tomcat-style servlets, backed by MariaDB/MySQL) exposes a signed REST/JSON API to admins, end users, and integrations; runs system VMs (Secondary Storage VM, Console Proxy VM, virtual router); and orchestrates a fleet of agents running on each hypervisor host. Authorization is RBAC + multi-tenant domain/account/project hierarchy. The deployment shape is "operator-run private/public cloud control plane", not a hosted-as-a-service appliance.

§2 Scope and intended use

Intended use

• A multi-tenant IaaS control plane deployed by an operator inside a controlled datacenter or cloud, exposing compute / storage / network orchestration to authenticated end users via APIs which return responses in JSON or XML and a Vue.js Web UI, with separately authenticated administrators (documented: README.md, INSTALL.md).
• Used both for service-provider public clouds and for on-premises private clouds; the trust model is the same in both (documented: README.md).

Deployment shape

CloudStack is not an in-process library, not a single-binary appliance, and not a hosted SaaS. It is a distributed control plane: one or more management-server instances — a single management-server instance for smaller clouds, or a cluster behind a load balancer for larger deployments (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — a MariaDB/MySQL database, one usage server, an optional SecondaryStorageVM/ConsoleProxyVM/VirtualRouter set of system VMs, and a per-hypervisor-host cloudstack-agent (for KVM/baremetal) or out-of-process resource bridges (for VMware / XenServer / XCP-ng / Hyper-V). The operator owns the surrounding L2/L3 network (the management network, the public network, the guest network, the storage network) and the physical hosts. The threat model is therefore that of a distributed service (single-instance or clustered), not a library (maintainer: DaanHoogland — confirms the distributed control-plane shape; single-instance is also a supported topology).

Caller roles

Role	Trust level	Notes
End-user API client / Web UI user	untrusted but authenticated	Identity verified via Apache CloudStack-native (password + HMAC-SHA1 signed request), LDAP, SAML2, OAuth2, or pluggable APIAuthenticator (documented: plugins/user-authenticators/{ldap,saml2,oauth2,...}, server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServer.java verifyRequest).
Domain / Project admin	partial trust within their domain	Bounded by RBAC (plugins/acl/{static,dynamic,project}-role-based) and the domain hierarchy; can manage users / VMs / networks within a domain.
Root admin	trusted control plane	Global RBAC role; can change global configuration, upload templates/ISOs, run privileged orchestration.
Operator / cluster admin	trusted	OS-level access to management-server hosts, the MariaDB database, the keystore, and the agent hosts. Sets agent.properties, manages cloudstack-agent packages, manages the JCEKS keystore used by the agent for TLS (documented: agent/conf/agent.properties, framework/security/.../KeystoreManager.java).
Hypervisor agent (cloudstack-agent on KVM/baremetal)	trusted-once-enrolled peer	Mutually authenticated via X.509 client cert signed by the management server's Root CA (documented: framework/ca/, plugins/ca/root-ca/, agent/src/main/java/com/cloud/agent/Agent.java setupAgentKeystore).
System VM (SSVM / CPVM / VR)	trusted-once-enrolled peer	Same X.509 enrolment shape as the agent; carries the agent binary inside (maintainer: confirmed — same trust tier as agents, not a separate tier).
Hypervisor host (the underlying KVM/VMware/etc.)	trusted by virtue of operator-controlled provisioning	CloudStack expects to drive the hypervisor via libvirt / VMware vSphere SDK / XenAPI as a privileged user (documented: plugins/hypervisors/kvm/, plugins/hypervisors/vmware/, plugins/hypervisors/xenserver/).
Hypervisor-managed guest VM (end-user workload)	untrusted	A guest VM is an attacker's workload; the model defends against it.
Reverse proxy / load balancer in front of management server	trusted (if proxy.header.verify=true)	When the operator enables forward-header processing, only requests whose Remote_Addr ∈ proxy.cidr have their proxy.header.names header honoured (documented: server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServlet.java getClientAddress; setting names maintainer: vishesh92).
Underlying storage (primary / secondary)	trusted by virtue of operator-granted credentials	CloudStack reads/writes via NFS / RBD / iSCSI / S3 with operator-supplied credentials (documented: primary/secondary storage plugins under plugins/storage/).
External integrations (Tungsten, NSX, Netscaler, Palo Alto, …)	trusted control-plane peers	Operator-configured; CloudStack assumes truthful responses (inferred — §14 Q3).

Component-family table

| Management server JSON and XML APIs | server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServlet.java, HTTP on :8080 (API + UI), optional HTTPS on :8443 when https.enable=true; user API path :8080/client/api (documented: server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServlet.java, client/conf/server.properties.in) | network (TCP, optionally TLS) | yes | | Management server cluster RPC (peer-to-peer) | NIO + TLS between management-server replicas, :9090 (documented: framework/cluster/, utils/.../nio/) | network | yes (peer auth via Root CA) | | Management server → agent RPC | NIO + TLS on :8250 (default agent.properties) (documented: agent/conf/agent.properties line 47, utils/.../nio/NioServer.java) | network | yes (mutually authenticated via Root CA) | | cloudstack-agent (KVM/baremetal) | reverse-connects to management server, runs commands via libvirt / hypervisor SDK (documented: agent/, plugins/hypervisors/kvm/) | network + hypervisor + OS | yes | | System VMs — SecondaryStorageVM, ConsoleProxyVM, Virtual Router | shipped images under systemvm/; agent binaries inside them (documented: systemvm/) | network (storage / public / guest) | yes | | Console proxy data path | browser ↔ ConsoleProxyVM ↔ hypervisor VNC/SPICE socket; signed token issued by management server (documented: server/src/main/java/com/cloud/servlet/ConsoleProxyServlet.java, server/src/main/java/com/cloud/servlet/ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor.java) | network | yes | | Secondary-storage HTTP (templates, ISO downloads, snapshot copies) | download links are UUID-named symlinks served by an Apache httpd, with no auth on the link; the UUID format prevents enumeration and the symlinks are removed after a period (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland) | network | yes | | Hypervisor plugins (plugins/hypervisors/{kvm,vmware,xenserver,hyperv,ovm,ovm3,baremetal,ucs,simulator}) | invoked by agent or by management server (documented: plugins/hypervisors/) | hypervisor APIs | yes for the call shape; out-of-model for the upstream hypervisor's own bugs | | Network plugins (plugins/network-elements/{netscaler,nsx,palo-alto,tungsten,nicira-nvp,...}) | management server outbound | external SDN/firewall APIs | yes for credential handling and request construction; out-of-model for the external endpoint | | Storage plugins (plugins/storage/{volume,image,object}) | management server / agent | NFS, RBD, iSCSI, S3 endpoints | yes for credential handling; out-of-model for the storage endpoint | | User authenticator plugins (plugins/user-authenticators/{md5,sha256salted,pbkdf2,plain-text,ldap,saml2,oauth2}) | management server | LDAP / SAML2 IdP / OAuth2 IdP | yes for the local code; out-of-model for the IdP | | RootCA provider (plugins/ca/root-ca/) | self-signed CA generated by management server at first boot, issues certs to agents (documented: plugins/ca/root-ca/.../RootCAProvider.java) | none directly | yes | | Two-factor authenticators (plugins/user-two-factor-authenticators/{static-pin,totp}) | management server | none | yes | | Backup providers (plugins/backup/) | management server outbound | external backup endpoints | yes for credential handling | | Quota / metrics / DRS / HA planners | internal | none | yes as orchestration only; not a security boundary | | Database layer (MariaDB/MySQL, Jasypt-encrypted secrets) | management server | network to DB | yes for credential handling; DB itself is trusted (documented: README.md "Notice of Cryptographic Software" — JaSypt, native DB encryption) | | cloud-cli, tools/marvin, test/, developer/, quickcloud/ | integration / test tooling | varies | out of model (§3) | | systemvm/agent/noVNC (a vendored fork of github.com/novnc/novnc with CloudStack-specific changes on top (maintainer: vishesh92)), …/vendor/pako, other vendored JS / shell scripts | vendored upstream | n/a | in-model only at the wrapper boundary; upstream bugs go upstream. No automated vendored-dependency update procedure exists today (dependabot does not produce viable PRs); the PMC would prefer to have one (maintainer: DaanHoogland) |

§3 Out of scope (explicit non-goals)

CloudStack is not, and does not aim to be, the following — reports requiring any of these will be closed with the cited disposition:

1. A defender against the operator. Anyone with root on a management-server host, root on a hypervisor host, raw MariaDB credentials, the JCEKS keystore + security.encryption.key / security.encryption.iv (documented: framework/security/.../KeysManager.java), or the Root CA private key already has unbounded power. "The operator misconfigured X" is not a vulnerability (inferred — §14 Q6). → OUT-OF-MODEL: adversary-not-in-scope.
2. A defender against a malicious external service the operator configured. A hostile LDAP server, SAML IdP, OAuth IdP, Tungsten / NSX / Netscaler controller, S3 endpoint, Ceph cluster, or backup provider is treated as a trusted control-plane peer. If the report requires that peer to be hostile, it is out of model (inferred — §14 Q3). → OUT-OF-MODEL: trusted-input.
3. A defender against the hypervisor. CloudStack drives KVM / VMware / XenServer / XCP-ng / Hyper-V via their own admin APIs. A hypervisor bug that allows guest escape, a vSphere SDK vulnerability, a libvirt privilege escalation — all are upstream to the hypervisor project, not to CloudStack (inferred — §14 Q7). → OUT-OF-MODEL: unsupported-component (upstream pointer).
4. An isolation boundary between an authorized administrator's API call and the management server process. Root admin can change global configuration, upload templates and scripts to system VMs, register arbitrary network/storage plugins, and run runCustomAction-style commands. A new way for a root admin to do something they are already authorized to do is not a vulnerability (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q8). → OUT-OF-MODEL: equivalent-harm.
5. A defender against a guest VM doing things the hypervisor allows it to do. A guest VM consuming CPU, memory, or disk up to its allocated limit, sending arbitrary IP traffic within its assigned VLAN / VXLAN / security group, or exploiting another VM via the hypervisor's own shared surfaces (sidechannel, RowHammer, GPU passthrough leak) is out of model. CloudStack is responsible only for the orchestration that places the guest, not for hypervisor-level isolation (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q9; the in-model case is CloudStack applying wrong/insecure hypervisor settings — Daan to confirm boundary). → OUT-OF-MODEL: adversary-not-in-scope for the side-channel case, BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed for the resource-limit case.
6. A sandbox for templates, ISO images, or user-data scripts. A user-uploaded template (via registerTemplate) is run by the hypervisor with the privileges the system grants. cloud-init / user-data / metadata is passed through to the guest; CloudStack does not parse or sanitize its semantics (documented: kubernetes-service plugin userdata references; maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q10, end-user guest customization). → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed.
7. Code that ships but is not part of the supported product: tools/marvin/, test/, developer/, quickcloud/, cloud-cli/, tools/devcloud4/, tools/devcloud-kvm/, tools/appliance/, tools/checkstyle/, tools/transifex/, services/-side simulators, simulator hypervisor plugin, and IDE / build helpers under tools/. (inferred — §14 Q11). → OUT-OF-MODEL: unsupported-component.
8. Bundled / vendored upstream libraries — JaSypt, Bouncy Castle, JSch, OpenSwan, noVNC + pako, MariaDB Connector/J, Spring, Apache Commons, log4j, etc. (documented: README.md Cryptographic Software notice). systemvm/agent/noVNC is specifically a vendored fork of github.com/novnc/novnc carrying CloudStack-specific changes (maintainer: vishesh92). Where CloudStack vendors source, the vendored code is modeled at the wrapper boundary; vulnerabilities intrinsic to the upstream project should be reported upstream. There is currently no automated procedure to pull upstream fixes into the vendored copies (dependabot has not produced viable PRs); the PMC would prefer to establish one (maintainer: DaanHoogland). → OUT-OF-MODEL: unsupported-component (with an upstream pointer).
9. The four satellite repos (apache/cloudstack-cloudmonkey, apache/cloudstack-go, apache/cloudstack-terraform-provider, apache/cloudstack-kubernetes-provider) — covered by their own delta threat models which inherit §3 / §4 / §7 from this document.
10. The CloudStack documentation site, Confluence wiki, downloads mirrors, Docker Hub images outside apache/cloudstack-*, gem / npm / PyPI packages with similar names, and other non-product surfaces. Out of scope.

§4 Trust boundaries and data flow

CloudStack has at least nine distinct trust transitions; a finding is in-model only when it cleanly maps to one of them.

#	Transition	Authentication	Authorization
B1	API client → management server JSON API (:8080/:8443)	per-user API key + HMAC-SHA1 signature over query string, or session login + 2FA (documented: server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServer.java verifyRequest); signature version 3 has expiration enforcement (documented: same file line ~1053)	RBAC (dynamic-role-based / static-role-based / project-role-based) on the called API command name + domain/account ownership of named resources
B2	Web UI → management server (:8080)	same as B1 plus session cookie	same as B1
B3	Browser → ConsoleProxyVM → hypervisor VNC socket	signed token issued by management server, embedded in URL; encrypted with ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor (documented: server/src/main/java/com/cloud/servlet/ConsoleProxyServlet.java, ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor.java)	implicit (signed-token possession)
B4	Management server ↔ management server (cluster peers)	NIO + TLS, Root CA-issued certs (documented: framework/cluster/, framework/ca/)	peer-trust by valid cert
B5	Management server → cloudstack-agent (KVM/baremetal)	NIO + TLS on :8250; agent uses X.509 client cert issued by Root CA on first connect; cert provisioning is the SetupKeyStoreCommand shape (documented: agent/src/main/java/com/cloud/agent/Agent.java setupAgentKeystore, framework/ca/.../CAService.java, plugins/ca/root-ca/.../RootCAProvider.java); trust strictness governed by ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness (default true for new setups; false only on upgrade from pre-Aug-2017 versions — see §5a) and ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert	peer-trust by valid cert
B6	Management server → external services (LDAP / SAML2 / OAuth2 IdP, NSX, Netscaler, Tungsten, S3, backup providers)	per-provider (service account, OAuth token, etc.)	external-service-side
B7	Agent → hypervisor (libvirt / vSphere SDK / XenAPI)	local Unix socket (libvirt) or operator-supplied SDK credentials	hypervisor-side
B8	Management server / agent → primary/secondary storage (NFS, RBD, iSCSI, S3)	OS-level (NFS), Ceph cephx, iSCSI CHAP, IAM key / static credential (S3)	storage-side
B9	Operator → management server config (db.properties, server.properties, JCEKS keystore, global config table)	filesystem permissions on the host + DB access	OS-level + DB-level

Reachability preconditions per family

For each family in §2, a finding is in-model only if it is reachable as follows:

• Management server JSON API: reachable from an unauthenticated network peer who can reach :8080 / :8443. Findings that require an authenticated peer collapse to "authenticated user with RBAC privilege X", and must additionally either clear RBAC for the harmful command or bypass it.
• Web UI: same shape as the JSON API; the Vue.js SPA is a presentation layer over the API.
• Cluster RPC (B4): reachable from a peer that has cleared the Root CA trust check. A flat "cluster RPC has no auth" finding is OUT-OF-MODEL: adversary-not-in-scope because the model requires the Root CA to be enrolled across peers; a cleartext/un-certed cluster RPC finding is gated by ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness, which defaults to true on new setups (see §5a).
• Management ↔ agent (B5): reachable from a peer that presents a Root-CA-signed certificate the management server accepts. By default on new setups ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness = true, so the management server does require a client certificate from the connecting agent (maintainer: vishesh92 — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239). The value remains false only when upgrading from versions released before Aug 2017 that predate the setting; that upgrade case is documented in the upgrade instructions and is therefore not a concern (maintainer: DaanHoogland) (documented: plugins/ca/root-ca/.../RootCAProvider.java, RootCACustomTrustManager.java).
• Console proxy (B3): reachable by anyone who holds a valid signed token. The token is the entire authorization gate.
• Agent → hypervisor (B7): reachable only on the agent host, by code the agent runs.
• External integrations (B6): reachable from the management server's outbound posture; a hostile external service is OUT-OF-MODEL: trusted-input (§3 item 2).

§5 Assumptions about the environment

• Operating system (management server / usage server): RHEL 8/9/10, CentOS 8/9, Rocky 9/10, Ubuntu 22.04/24.04, SUSE 15, openSUSE Leap 15; Java 17 (README.md, INSTALL.md, packaging/{el8,el9,el10,debian,suse15}).
• Operating system (agent): same family on KVM/baremetal hosts; agent ships as cloudstack-agent package (documented: debian/, packaging/).
• Database: MariaDB or MySQL-compatible, accessible from each management-server instance; CloudStack uses native DB encryption + JaSypt for application-level secrets (documented: README.md "Notice of Cryptographic Software").
• Cryptography: JaSypt (application-secret encryption), Bouncy Castle (general-purpose crypto, X.509 issuance in the Root CA provider), JSch (SSH client to system VMs), OpenSwan (optional VPN endpoint termination) (documented: README.md Cryptographic Software notice).
• Network: operator-controlled L2/L3 with at least the management network, public network, guest network, and storage network as logical fabrics (documented: CloudStack admin documentation; inferred — §14 Q13). The management network is the trusted control-plane network; the guest network carries untrusted guest VM traffic.
• Time: signature version 3 enforces an expires parameter on signed API requests (documented: ApiServer.java line ~1054); this assumes loosely-synchronized clocks between client and management server (inferred — §14 Q14).
• Filesystem: the JCEKS keystore, db.properties, server.properties, and Root CA private key are stored under /etc/cloudstack/management/ with OS-level permissions restricted to the cloudstack user (inferred — §14 Q15).
• Hypervisor: each supported hypervisor is assumed to provide its own guest isolation (memory, vCPU, disk, network) and to expose a stable admin API (libvirt for KVM, vSphere SDK for VMware, XenAPI for XenServer/XCP-ng, WinRM/Hyper-V API for Hyper-V).
• What CloudStack does to its host (negative claims, awaiting maintainer ratification):
  • does open listening sockets on documented ports (:8080/:8443/:8250/:8096/:9090/console-proxy ports) (documented);
  • does maintain MariaDB connections from the management server;
  • does issue X.509 certificates from its self-signed Root CA (documented: plugins/ca/root-ca/.../RootCAProvider.java);
  • does spawn child processes from the agent (Script invocations against /usr/share/cloudstack-common/scripts/) (documented: agent/src/main/java/com/cloud/agent/Agent.java keystoreSetupSetupPath, keystoreCertImportScriptPath);
  • does write logs under operator-configured locations;
  • does read a documented set of environment variables and the db.properties file at startup (inferred — §14 Q16);
  • does install signal handlers / shutdown hooks only as Tomcat/Jetty servlet container default (inferred — §14 Q16).

§5a Build-time and configuration variants

CloudStack ships as a family of packages: 'cloudstack-agent', 'cloudstack-baremetal-agent', 'cloudstack-common', 'cloudstack-integration-tests', 'cloudstack-management', 'cloudstack-marvin', 'cloudstack-mysql-ha', 'cloudstack-ui', 'cloudstack-usage' (documented: debian/, packaging/). A sizable number of runtime configuration knobs materially change the security envelope. The security-relevant subset:

Knob	Default	Maintainer stance	Effect
ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness	true for new setups; false only on upgrade from pre-Aug-2017 versions (maintainer: vishesh92 — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239)	New setups are strict by default; the false-on-upgrade case is called out in the upgrade instructions and is therefore not a concern (maintainer: DaanHoogland)	When false, the management server's RootCACustomTrustManager does not require a client certificate from a peer attempting to connect on :8250 (agent port) or cluster ports. A peer without a cert is allowed in.
ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert	true (documented: RootCAProvider.java)	operational default to survive cert-rotation lag (maintainer: paired with the strictness ruling above)	When true, an expired client cert is accepted during SSL handshake.
ca.plugin.root.issuer.dn	CN=ca.cloudstack.apache.org (documented: same file)	configured at first management-server boot	Subject DN of the auto-generated self-signed Root CA.
proxy.header.verify	false by default (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q17)	When on, the operator must restrict proxy.cidr to the trusted reverse-proxy CIDR	When set, ApiServlet.getClientAddress honours proxy-set forward headers only for source IPs in proxy.cidr (documented: server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServlet.java getClientAddress; setting name maintainer: vishesh92).
proxy.header.names	list of header names; semantics: names to check for allowed IP addresses from a proxy-set header (maintainer: vishesh92)	list of header names to consult for the allowed client address when set by a proxy	Names the request header(s) carrying the proxy-set client IP.
proxy.cidr	unset (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q17; headers honoured only when Remote_Addr ∈ this list)	required when proxy.header.verify is on	List of CIDRs for which proxy.header.names headers are honoured when the connecting Remote_Addr is in this list (semantics maintainer: vishesh92).
enable.user.2fa / mandate.user.2fa	both default false; domain-configurable (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q18)	enable.user.2fa turns 2FA on; mandate.user.2fa makes it mandatory (only when enable.user.2fa is true) — a deployment choice, not a §10 violation when off	When on, users must complete static-pin or TOTP 2FA after login.
security.encryption.key, security.encryption.iv	auto-generated at first boot (documented: framework/security/.../KeysManager.java)	trusted secret	Base64-encoded JaSypt master key + IV used to encrypt application-level secrets in the DB.
user.password.encoders.order	PBKDF2,SHA256SALT,MD5,LDAP,SAML2,PLAINTEXT (maintainer: vishesh92)	first encoder in the order is used to hash new passwords; the list also defines the verification fall-through order	Governs how user passwords are stored and which encoders are accepted on verify.
user.password.encoders.exclude	MD5,LDAP,PLAINTEXT (maintainer: vishesh92)	excluded encoders are not used to (re)hash passwords	Excludes weak/legacy encoders from being chosen, even though they remain in the order list for verifying already-stored hashes.
enforce.post.requests.and.timestamps	per isPostRequestsAndTimestampsEnforced (documented: ApiServer.java; setting name maintainer: vishesh92)	bounds expires to a maximum future offset	Prevents an attacker who steals a signed URL with a 10-year expiration from using it forever.
integration.api.port (:8096)	typically disabled (inferred — §14 Q20)	When non-zero, exposes an unauthenticated admin API for integration testing	An open integration port is a complete RBAC bypass on the management server.
Hypervisor enablement (which plugins/hypervisors/* are installed and configured)	per zone	operator-driven	An unused hypervisor plugin still ships but is not connected to any host.
Hostname / SAN of management-server cert (ca.framework.cert.management.custom.san)	unset (maintainer: vishesh92)	when set, included in the auto-generated cert SAN	governs which hostnames clients can use to reach the management server.
SAML2 / OAuth2 enablement (plugins/user-authenticators/{saml2,oauth2})	off (inferred — §14 Q19)	turning on adds an external IdP trust dependency	adds B6 transitions.
LDAP enablement (plugins/user-authenticators/ldap)	off (inferred — §14 Q19)	turning on adds an external LDAP trust dependency	adds B6 transitions.

The Root-CA strictness default (resolved). Earlier drafts treated ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness = false as the shipped default and the single highest-leverage open question. The PMC has clarified that new setups default to true — the management server does require a Root-CA-signed client cert on :8250 and the cluster ports — and the value is false only when upgrading from versions released before Aug 2017 that predate the setting (maintainer: vishesh92 — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239). That upgrade case is documented in the upgrade instructions, so a leftover false after such an upgrade is an operator-hardening/upgrade-hygiene item, not a shipped insecure default (maintainer: DaanHoogland). A report against an open :8250 accepting an un-certed peer on a new install is therefore MODEL-GAP/VALID (strictness should be on), whereas the same on an upgraded pre-2017 install is OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build (documented upgrade step not applied). ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert remains true as an operational concession to cert-rotation lag.

§6 Assumptions about inputs

Per-endpoint trust table (network surfaces)

Surface / route	Parameter	Attacker-controllable?	Caller must enforce
Management server :8080/:8443 JSON API	command name + params	yes	nothing — CloudStack parses, authenticates (B1), applies RBAC, dispatches
Management server :8080/:8443 JSON API	signature parameter	yes	HMAC-SHA1 verified constant-time against expected signature (documented: ApiServer.java line 1137 ConstantTimeComparator.compareStrings)
Management server :8080/:8443 JSON API	expires parameter (sig v3)	yes	rejected if past, or beyond the enforce.post.requests.and.timestamps ceiling (documented: same file; setting name maintainer: vishesh92)
Management server :8080/:8443 JSON API	proxy-set forward headers (proxy.header.names)	yes if proxy.header.verify=true	honoured only if the connecting Remote_Addr ∈ proxy.cidr (documented: ApiServlet.java getClientAddress; setting names maintainer: vishesh92)
Management server :8080/:8443 Web UI	session cookie	yes	session-fixation / invalidation handled via invalidateHttpSession on auth failure (documented: ApiServlet.java line 418)
Integration API :8096 (if enabled)	command name + params	yes	no signature check — integration port is unauthenticated by design
Management ↔ agent :8250	NIO Thrift-like payload	only by a peer that has cleared B5 trust	client cert via RootCACustomTrustManager
Management ↔ cluster peer	NIO payload	only by a peer that has cleared B4 trust	client cert via RootCACustomTrustManager
Console proxy URL	encrypted token (containing VM identity + endpoint + duration)	yes	token MUST decrypt + verify with ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor keys (documented: ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor.java)
Secondary-storage HTTP download URL	UUID-named symlink path	yes	no auth on the download link; the UUID format is the anti-enumeration control and the symlink is removed after a period — timed availability of the download token is the mitigation (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland)
Template / ISO upload	URL of remote source	yes within RBAC	upload-gated by registerTemplate RBAC; bytes are then served to hypervisors as image data
User-data / metadata service (169.254.169.254 from inside guests)	guest-controlled bytes (the request)	yes from the guest, but the service is reached from the guest and serves only that guest's data	guest-VM-side isolation by virtual router
Hypervisor agent log / event stream	bytes from hypervisor	trusted operator surface	none — assumed truthful
LDAP / SAML / OAuth response (B6)	bytes from IdP	trusted	LDAP queries treat returned attributes as authoritative
Storage response (B8)	bytes / metadata from storage	trusted	bytes are object content; envelope is control-plane

Size / shape / rate

• CloudStack does not document a maximum signed-API request size; assumed to be servlet-container default (Jetty / Tomcat) (inferred — §14 Q21).
• API rate limiting is per-account via the global config knobs api.throttling.* (inferred — §14 Q22); an attacker with a valid API key can be rate- limited at the application layer.
• Template / ISO upload size is bounded by storage capacity and per-account resource limits (inferred — §14 Q22); pathological compressed-image inputs (e.g. extremely compressible QCOW2 with sparse holes that expand to TB on extraction) are robustness concerns (inferred — §14 Q23).
• Cluster-peer and agent RPC payload sizes: no documented application-layer cap; NIO framing applies (inferred — §14 Q21).

§7 Adversary model

Actors

Actor	In scope?	Capabilities granted
Unauthenticated network peer reaching :8080/:8443	yes	TCP to the listening ports; may attempt authentication; may attempt to violate the protocol pre-auth
Unauthenticated peer reaching :8250 (agent port)	only if ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness = false, which on new setups it is not (default true); false arises only on un-remediated pre-Aug-2017 upgrades (§5a)	TCP to the listening port; may attempt to connect as a peer without presenting a cert
Unauthenticated peer reaching :8096 (integration port)	yes if the port is open (typically not in production)	full unauthenticated admin API
Authenticated end user with limited RBAC role	yes	call APIs their role permits; manage VMs/networks/storage in their domain/account/project
Authenticated end user with broad RBAC role	partial	only RBAC-envelope escapes are in scope
Authenticated domain admin	yes	full management within their domain; cross-domain leakage is in scope
Authenticated root admin	out of scope — see §3 item 4	unbounded by design
Co-tenant (different account in same domain or different domain on same CloudStack)	yes	cross-tenant leakage (VM ID guessing, network bleed, storage bleed, template visibility) is in scope
Guest VM workload	partial	hypervisor-mediated; out-of-scope for hypervisor isolation bugs (§3 item 5), in-scope for the orchestration that placed the VM (security-group rule application, VLAN tagging, public IP routing)
Browser holding a valid console-proxy URL	yes	the URL is a bearer credential; scope of harm is one VM's console for the URL's lifetime
Operator	out of scope	see §3 item 1
Hostile hypervisor	out of scope	see §3 item 3
Hostile LDAP / SAML / OAuth IdP, hostile NSX/Netscaler/Tungsten, hostile S3 endpoint	out of scope	see §3 item 2
Reverse proxy that should be trusted but is not in proxy.cidr	out of scope	its forward headers are not honoured
Local process on the management-server host running as a different UID	partial (inferred — §14 Q24)	same-host attackers with non-cloudstack UID can reach :8080 unless host firewalling forbids; CloudStack does not defend against same-host root
Side-channel observer (cache timing, network timing, hypervisor side channels)	out of scope (inferred — §14 Q25)	n/a
Quantum adversary	out of scope	n/a

Authenticated-but-Byzantine peer (distributed-systems threshold)

CloudStack is not a Byzantine-fault-tolerant system. A compromised management-server cluster peer with a valid Root-CA-issued cert can schedule arbitrary work onto the agent fleet, read any guest's data, and hand out console-proxy tokens. The cluster trusts its own membership (inferred — §14 Q26). Likewise, a compromised agent host can serve malicious data on the management network and produce wrong status. → reports requiring a Byzantine internal peer are OUT-OF-MODEL: adversary-not-in-scope.

§8 Security properties the project provides

For each property: condition, violation symptom, severity tier, provenance.

P1 — Authentication of API clients via signed request

• Condition: a request carries apiKey + signature (and, for signature version 3, an expires parameter not in the past) (documented: ApiServer.java verifyRequest); the signature is HMAC-SHA1 of the canonical parameter string under the per-user secret key, base64-encoded, lowercased, URL-decoded, and compared to the computed value using ConstantTimeComparator.compareStrings (documented: same file line 1137).
• Violation symptom: a request executes API commands without a valid apiKey+signature pair (and without a valid session cookie / SAML / OAuth / LDAP login).
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented)

P2 — Session authentication via password + optional 2FA

• Condition: user logs in via the login API; 2FA is verified after password if enabled for the user / domain (documented: ApiServlet.java lines 360–582).
• Violation symptom: a session is created without a valid password, or 2FA enforcement is bypassed for a user where it is mandated.
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented)

P3 — Constant-time signature comparison

• Condition: applies to the API signature check.
• Violation symptom: timing-side-channel measurement of signature comparison reveals the expected signature byte-by-byte.
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented: ApiServer.java line 1137)

P4 — Authorization via RBAC + domain/account/project hierarchy

• Condition: the authenticated principal calls an API command, and the command name is permitted for their role (documented: plugins/acl/{static,dynamic,project}-role-based); resources named in the request belong to the principal's domain/account/project or to a child within the principal's scope.
• Violation symptom: a non-root principal successfully executes an API command not licensed for their role, or operates on a resource outside their domain/account/project scope.
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented)

P5 — Mutual TLS on management ↔ agent, management ↔ cluster peer, when configured

• Condition: ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness = true — the default on new setups (maintainer: vishesh92 — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239). Pre-Aug-2017 upgrades may leave it false until the documented upgrade step is applied (maintainer: DaanHoogland). ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert remains true (cert-rotation concession), so the property covers peer-cert presence and Root-CA chain, not cert freshness.
• Violation symptom: a peer without a Root-CA-issued cert successfully completes a session on :8250 or the cluster port on a setup where strictness is on.
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented; default resolved by maintainer.)

P6 — Reverse-proxy IP-trust gating for forward headers

• Condition: proxy.header.verify on (default false) (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q17); only requests whose Remote_Addr falls in proxy.cidr have their proxy.header.names forward header(s) consulted (documented: ApiServlet.java getClientAddress NetUtils.isIpInCidrList; setting names maintainer: vishesh92).
• Violation symptom: a request from a source IP outside proxy.cidr succeeds with an attacker-supplied forward header taking effect.
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented)

P7 — Console-proxy token confidentiality and integrity

• Condition: tokens are encrypted under the ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor keys (documented: ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor.java); a token includes the VM identity, the hypervisor endpoint, and a duration / expiry.
• Violation symptom: a third party with no console-access RBAC privilege forges or decrypts a token to gain console access; or a token remains valid past its declared expiry.
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented)

P8 — Application-secret encryption at rest in the DB via JaSypt

• Condition: security.encryption.key + security.encryption.iv are initialised at first boot and kept under filesystem ACLs (documented: framework/security/.../KeysManager.java, README.md Cryptographic Software notice).
• Violation symptom: an attacker with read access to the DB but not to the encryption key file recovers plaintext for secrets the model claims are encrypted (typically: external service passwords, account API secret keys when stored encrypted).
• Severity: security-critical, VALID per §13.
• (documented)

P9 — Memory safety on well-formed inputs across documented surfaces (JVM-bounded)

• Condition: input matches the documented protocol on B1–B5; the JVM is conformant; native code is invoked only via documented hypervisor SDKs (libvirt / vSphere / XenAPI). CloudStack presumes no limitation on implementation language — ocaml, python and bash run on hypervisors and go is used on the management server (the set may grow); the memory-safety claims here hold for the JVM components, to which the JVM-conformance condition applies (maintainer: DaanHoogland — §14 Q27).
• Violation symptom: heap corruption, OOM-via-input-size attack on a surface where the input source is :8080 / :8443 / B5; JVM-side crashes from a request a normally-RBAC'd user could send.
• Severity: security-critical when reachable from network input; VALID-HARDENING when reachable only by a writer who already controls the bytes (§3 item 5).
• (maintainer: DaanHoogland — §14 Q27)

P10 — Bounded RBAC scope of cross-domain visibility (SHOW-equivalent listing)

• Condition: list* API commands filter responses to the principal's domain/account/project scope per plugins/acl/ policy.
• Violation symptom: a list* response leaks resource IDs / names / metadata for resources outside the principal's RBAC scope.
• Severity: security-critical for resources whose existence is itself confidential (typically: customer VM names, custom template names); VALID per §13.
• (inferred — §14 Q28)

§9 Security properties the project does not provide

State each plainly so a triager can route an inbound report to the matching disclaimer.

• No defence against the operator. Anyone with root on a management-server host, the JCEKS keystore + security.encryption.key, the Root CA private key, or the MariaDB credentials wins. See §3 item 1 (inferred — §14 Q6).
• No defence against a malicious external service the operator configured. A hostile LDAP/SAML/OAuth IdP, NSX controller, Tungsten, Netscaler, S3 endpoint, or backup provider is trusted. See §3 item 2.
• No defence against the hypervisor. Guest VM escape via libvirt, vSphere, XenAPI, Hyper-V is upstream. See §3 item 3.
• No isolation between a root admin's API call and the management-server process. Root admin can register arbitrary plugins, upload arbitrary templates, run runCustomAction. See §3 item 4 (inferred — §14 Q8).
• No sandbox for guest VM workloads beyond what the hypervisor provides. Side-channel leaks between co-tenant VMs (cache, branch, memory bus, shared GPU) are out of scope. See §3 item 5 (inferred — §14 Q9).
• No sandbox for user-data / templates / ISOs. Templates run as their own OS image with their own cloud-init; CloudStack does not parse or reject user-data semantics. See §3 item 6 (inferred — §14 Q10).
• No defence against decompression / decoding bombs in uploaded templates / ISOs. A pathological QCOW2 / RAW image can consume arbitrary CPU / disk on extraction; per-account resource limits are the bound (inferred — §14 Q23).
• No defence against intra-cluster Byzantine failure. A compromised cluster peer with a valid Root-CA-issued cert can read any data the cluster can read; see §7 (inferred — §14 Q26). Likewise a compromised agent host.
• No data-at-rest encryption beyond JaSypt for selected DB columns + whatever storage layers provide. Guest volumes are encrypted only if the primary-storage plugin supports it (Ceph RBD encryption, LUKS at hypervisor layer) and the operator has configured it (inferred — §14 Q29).
• No defence against side-channel observation of API request timing, agent RPC timing, or memory access patterns (inferred — §14 Q25).
• No application-layer constant-time comparison of anything other than the API signature. Login password comparison, session cookie comparison, console-token comparison — not documented constant-time (inferred — §14 Q30).
• No defender stance against an attacker on the same Linux host running as a non-cloudstack UID — CloudStack defends only across the network surface; same-host attackers with shell access on the management-server host already have many paths to win (inferred — §14 Q24).
• No supported posture for the integration API port (:8096). When open, it is an unauthenticated admin surface; closing it is the operator's job (inferred — §14 Q20).

False-friend properties (call out separately)

• The Root CA is self-signed and auto-generated — it is not a publicly-trusted CA. Browsers and external clients require manual trust bootstrap. The Root CA private key resides on the management server; a compromised management server compromises the entire agent fleet's trust.
• ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness = false is not "TLS off" — it is "client cert not required" (documented: RootCAProvider.java). TLS on the wire is still there; what is missing is the peer-cert check. Note the value is true on new setups (maintainer: vishesh92); a scanner that flags "client cert not requested" is only correct on an un-remediated pre-Aug-2017 upgrade, and even then it identifies a documented upgrade step, not a transport-encryption bug.
• ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert = true is the operational default to survive cert-rotation lag but is not a security boundary.
• The HMAC-SHA1 signature is request-integrity over the URL, not request encryption. Transport encryption is TLS; if the operator serves the API over http://, the signature still validates but the whole request (including the secret-derived signature) is visible to the network.
• The console-proxy URL is a bearer credential. Anyone who sees the URL (in logs, in a proxy, in a shoulder-surf) holds the console for the URL's lifetime.
• list* filtering is a per-call authorization view, not an information-flow channel. Existence of a resource that the principal cannot see may leak through error messages, async-job status, event logs, or by-ID lookup probing (inferred — §14 Q28).
• The integration API port is not a "trusted" port in the sense of Kerberos auth-int — it is no authentication at all. The name invites confusion.
• JaSypt-encrypted DB columns are (documented) protected against a DB-only read. They are not protected against an attacker who obtains both the DB and the encryption-key file.

Well-known attack classes the project does not defend against

• Cross-tenant VM-ID guessing / template-name enumeration: §10 misuse, not engine breakage.
• Decompression / decoding bombs in uploaded templates and ISOs.
• Hypervisor side-channel attacks between co-tenant VMs.
• Confused-deputy between RBAC role and resource ownership — e.g. a domain admin's role permits a command, but the resource named is in a child domain they should not touch (inferred — §14 Q28).
• Time-of-check-to-time-of-use between RBAC check at API entry and the actual orchestration on the agent fleet — policy revocations mid-job are not retroactively enforced (inferred — §14 Q31).

§10 Downstream responsibilities

The operator deploying CloudStack in production must:

1. Keep ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness = true (the default on new setups). When upgrading from a pre-Aug-2017 version, follow the documented upgrade step to turn strictness on — otherwise agent and cluster-peer ports accept peers without a cert (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239). Consider tightening ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert (default true) once cert rotation is reliable.
2. Restrict the management network at L2/L3 so that :8250 (agent), :9090 (cluster), and the MariaDB port are reachable only from the intended peers (inferred — §14 Q13).
3. Restrict the integration API port :8096 — either disable it entirely or limit it to a localhost/management subnet (inferred — §14 Q20).
4. Terminate TLS for the JSON API and Web UI on :8443 (not :8080); if :8080 is exposed at all, only behind a TLS-terminating reverse proxy (inferred — §14 Q32).
5. When using a reverse proxy, set proxy.header.verify = true, proxy.header.names to the forward header(s) the proxy sets, and proxy.cidr to the proxy's CIDR — leaving proxy.cidr unset/empty means the header is ignored (safe-default per P6), but a misconfigured wide CIDR is a trust-bypass (setting names maintainer: vishesh92).
6. Protect the security.encryption.key / security.encryption.iv files, the JaSypt-encrypted DB, the Root CA private key, and the cloudstack-management Unix user's home directory at OS level.
7. Keep the password-encoder configuration at safe defaults: user.password.encoders.order defaults to PBKDF2,SHA256SALT,MD5,LDAP,SAML2,PLAINTEXT (so PBKDF2 is used to hash new passwords) and user.password.encoders.exclude defaults to MD5,LDAP,PLAINTEXT (so the weak encoders are not chosen for hashing, only retained for verifying already-stored hashes) (maintainer: vishesh92). Do not remove MD5/PLAINTEXT from the exclude list in production — the supported greenfield encoder set is PBKDF2,SHA256SALT,SAML2 (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q19).
8. Enable 2FA (totp or static-pin) for administrators and ideally for all users — 2FA on/off is a deployment choice via enable.user.2fa and mandate.user.2fa (both default false) (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q18).
9. Rotate per-user API secret keys on personnel change and on suspected compromise.
10. Treat user-uploaded templates and ISOs as crossing a trust boundary — scan / quarantine before allowing into the supported-template set.
11. Apply per-account resource limits (vCPU / RAM / volume size / image size) to bound decompression-bomb and orchestration-DoS attacks.
12. Configure storage-layer encryption (Ceph RBD encryption, LUKS at KVM, vSphere VM Encryption, etc.) if data-at-rest encryption is required.
13. Secure each cloudstack-agent host: cloudstack Unix user, agent keystore under /etc/cloudstack/agent/, root account, libvirt / vSphere admin credentials.
14. Restrict console-proxy URLs: do not log them, do not embed them in public responses, set a short token lifetime.
15. Audit API call logs (via the event-bus plugin) for anomalous patterns.

§11 Known misuse patterns

• Leaving :8250 open to the world with ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness=false on an upgraded pre-Aug-2017 cluster. New setups default to true; the false value only survives an upgrade where the documented step was skipped (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland). In that state any peer can connect as an agent — an upgrade-hygiene gap, dispositioned OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build (documented upgrade step not applied).
• Exposing :8096 (integration API) publicly. Anyone reaching the port executes admin API commands without auth.
• Exposing :8080 (HTTP JSON API) publicly without a TLS-terminating reverse proxy. Signed-request integrity holds, but the API secret- key-derived signature is visible to any wire observer; replay within the expires window is trivial.
• Setting proxy.header.verify=true with proxy.cidr wider than the actual reverse-proxy CIDR. An attacker outside the proxy can spoof a proxy.header.names header and claim any IP address for audit logs and authentication-IP checks (setting names maintainer: vishesh92).
• Removing MD5/PLAINTEXT from user.password.encoders.exclude (or reordering them to the front of user.password.encoders.order) in production. The encoders ship for verifying legacy hashes; promoting them to hash new passwords stores weakly-protected credentials (maintainer: vishesh92 — §14 Q19; the supported greenfield encoder set is PBKDF2,SHA256SALT,SAML2).
• Granting domain admin to too many users. A domain admin can manage all accounts within the domain — including reading guest console URLs.
• Embedding console-proxy URLs in screenshots, ticketing systems, or chat. Tokens are bearer credentials.
• Reusing security.encryption.key across environments of different trust levels. A staging-env leak becomes a production-env decrypt primitive (inferred — §14 Q33).
• Leaving ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness=false after a pre-Aug-2017 upgrade in a multi-management-server deployment. A peer can join the cluster without a cert until the documented upgrade step flips it to the new-setup default of true (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland).
• Uploading large or pathological templates and relying on hypervisor to enforce size. Per-account resource limits, not the engine, are the enforcement.

§11a Known non-findings (recurring false positives)

This section is the highest-leverage input for automated agentic security scans. Each entry: tool symptom, why it is safe under the model, the § that licenses the call.

• "Management ↔ agent port :8250 accepts no client cert" reported against a setup with ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness=false. New setups default to true and do require a Root-CA-signed client cert (maintainer: vishesh92 — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239). The value is false only on an upgrade from a pre-Aug-2017 version that predates the setting, and the upgrade instructions document turning it on (maintainer: DaanHoogland). → On a new install: KNOWN-NON-FINDING (strictness is on). On an upgraded install with the step skipped: OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build (documented upgrade step not applied).
• "Integration port :8096 is unauthenticated." The port is unauthenticated by design; operator responsibility per §10 to close / bind to localhost. → OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build once the PMC confirms.
• "HMAC-SHA1 signature uses SHA1." SHA1-HMAC is not broken for HMAC use; collision attacks on SHA1 do not extend to HMAC-SHA1 (documented: cryptographic literature; CloudStack uses Mac.getInstance("HmacSHA1") — ApiServer.java line 1130). → KNOWN-NON-FINDING.
• "Constant-time string compare for the signature." Already done — ConstantTimeComparator.compareStrings per ApiServer.java line 1137. → KNOWN-NON-FINDING (a finding flagging this is wrong).
• "Root CA private key is on the management server." By design — the management server is the CA. → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed.
• "Self-signed Root CA cert." By design — the CA is generated at first boot per RootCAProvider.java. Browsers will warn until the operator bootstraps trust. → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed.
• "Expired agent cert is accepted (ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert=true)." Documented default — an operational concession to cert-rotation lag, paired with the strictness default (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland). → VALID-HARDENING at most; tightening it is an operator choice per §10.
• "Hardcoded password / keytab in tools/marvin/, test/, developer/, quickcloud/." These directories are unsupported components per §3 item 7. → OUT-OF-MODEL: unsupported-component.
• "User-data / template contents execute arbitrary code in the guest VM." Templates are run as their own OS by the hypervisor; cloud-init / user-data is intentionally a code-execution channel into the guest. → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed per §9.
• "Root admin can change global config / register plugins / upload arbitrary templates." Documented and intentional. → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed per §9 / §3 item 4.
• "DoS via expensive list call on a large CloudStack." Pagination is present; further bounds are admission-control / quota. → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed per §9.
• "Decompression bomb in an uploaded QCOW2 / template." Per-account resource limits are the bound. → VALID-HARDENING at most, unless the decompression reaches §8 P9 memory-safety violations.
• "Vendored Bouncy Castle / JaSypt / noVNC / pako has CVE-X." Report upstream; systemvm/agent/noVNC is a vendored fork of github.com/novnc/novnc with CloudStack changes, and there is no automated sync procedure today (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland). → OUT-OF-MODEL: unsupported-component (upstream pointer); a CloudStack-introduced change to the fork is in-model.
• "Secondary-storage download URL has no authentication / can be replayed." By design: download links are UUID-named symlinks served by an Apache httpd with no auth on the link; the UUID format defeats enumeration and the symlink is removed after a period, so timed availability is the mitigation (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland). → BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed for the no-auth aspect; a link that is not removed after its window, or a guessable (non-UUID) name, is VALID-HARDENING.
• "A proxy-set forward header is honoured without authentication." Honoured only if (a) proxy.header.verify=true, (b) the header is one of proxy.header.names, and (c) the connecting Remote_Addr ∈ proxy.cidr (setting names maintainer: vishesh92). → KNOWN-NON-FINDING.
• "Session-fixation: a session ID is reusable after failed login." invalidateHttpSession is called on each auth failure path per ApiServlet.java. → KNOWN-NON-FINDING (verify the symptom; if reproducible, escalate to MODEL-GAP).

§12 Conditions that would change this model

Revise this document when any of the following lands:

• A new authentication mechanism on a client-facing surface (e.g. mTLS-as-API-auth on the JSON API, WebAuthn, OIDC).
• A new RBAC backend beyond the three included ACL plugins (e.g. OPA integration, policy-engine integration).
• A new data-at-rest encryption story at the CloudStack layer (currently delegated; see §9).
• A change in the default of any §5a flag, especially ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness and ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert.
• Removal or change of the legacy md5 / plain-text user-authenticator plugins.
• A change in the signing algorithm or signature scheme on the JSON API (e.g. SHA1 → SHA256 by default).
• A new hypervisor or system VM that adds a new trust boundary.
• A change in the extension mechanisms implemented by CloudStack (maintainer: DaanHoogland — §14 Q36).
• A new external-data surface (a new SDN controller integration, a new storage provider, a new backup provider).
• A vulnerability report that cannot be cleanly routed to one of the §13 dispositions: that is evidence the model is incomplete.

§13 Triage dispositions

A report against apache/cloudstack receives exactly one of the following:

Disposition	Meaning	Licensed by
VALID	Violates a §8 property via an in-scope §7 adversary using an in-scope §6 input.	§8, §6, §7
VALID-HARDENING	No §8 property violated, but a §11 misuse pattern can be made harder to fall into by code change. Fixed at maintainer discretion, typically no CVE.	§11
OUT-OF-MODEL: trusted-input	Requires attacker control of a §6 parameter the model marks trusted (e.g. operator-supplied config flag, hostile LDAP/SAML/NSX/etc.).	§6
OUT-OF-MODEL: adversary-not-in-scope	Requires a §7 actor the model excludes (operator, hostile hypervisor, hostile external IdP / SDN, Byzantine peer, side-channel observer, same-host non-cloudstack root).	§7
OUT-OF-MODEL: unsupported-component	Lands in tools/marvin/, test/, developer/, quickcloud/, vendored upstream code, simulator hypervisor, etc.	§3 items 7–8
OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build	Only manifests under a §5a flag that is not the new-setup default (e.g. ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness=false surviving an un-remediated pre-Aug-2017 upgrade, integration port :8096 open).	§5a
OUT-OF-MODEL: equivalent-harm	An actor already-authorized under the model can cause the same harm via a documented path (root admin doing root-admin things, RBAC-licensed user using their RBAC-licensed commands).	§3 items 4, 5
BY-DESIGN: property-disclaimed	Concerns a §9 property the project explicitly does not provide (template sandboxing, side-channel resistance, hypervisor isolation, etc.).	§9
KNOWN-NON-FINDING	Matches a §11a recurring false positive.	§11a
MODEL-GAP	Cannot be cleanly routed to any of the above — triggers §12 model revision.	§12

§14 Open questions for the maintainers

Every (inferred) tag in the body maps to one of these. Proposed answers are inline; please confirm, correct, or strike.

Wave 1 — scope, intended use, the two big insecure defaults

Q1. The model assumes CloudStack is "a clustered distributed control plane deployed inside an operator-controlled datacenter network", not a single-host appliance or a hosted SaaS. Confirm? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — distributed control plane; both a single management-server instance (smaller clouds) and a clustered deployment are supported topologies. Folded into §2.

Q2. Are the SecondaryStorageVM, ConsoleProxyVM, and Virtual Router treated as trusted-once-enrolled peers, or do they get their own trust tier? RESOLVED (maintainer) — yes, same trust tier as agents, not a separate tier. Folded into §2 caller-roles.

Q3. Are external integrations (LDAP, SAML2 IdP, OAuth2 IdP, NSX controller, Netscaler, Tungsten, S3-compatible storage, backup providers) modeled as trusted control-plane peers? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland — yes) — trusted control-plane peers; this licenses §3 item 2 and §11a trusted-input dispositions. (maps to §2, §3, §11a)

Q4. SecondaryStorageVM HTTP download surface — is the URL token per-template ACL-checked, or is the SSVM URL itself a bearer credential? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland) — download links are UUID-named symlinks served by an Apache httpd with no auth on the link; the UUID format defeats enumeration and the symlink is removed after a period (timed availability is the mitigation). The PMC noted this should be re-tested/confirmed in code. Folded into §6, §11a. (Daan also asked why static code analysis did not surface this — a note for the scan agent, not a model gap.)

Q5. Vendored upstream code under systemvm/agent/noVNC and bundled JaSypt / Bouncy Castle / JSch — is the policy "report upstream; we pick up fixes on next sync"? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland) — systemvm/agent/noVNC is a vendored fork of github.com/novnc/novnc with CloudStack changes; vendored bugs go upstream. There is no automated update procedure today (dependabot has not produced viable PRs); the PMC would prefer to establish one. Folded into §3 item 8, §11a.

Q6. Is "an operator with root on a management-server host, the JCEKS keystore + encryption keys, the Root CA private key, or MariaDB credentials" out of scope? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland — yes) — OUT-OF-MODEL: adversary-not-in-scope. (maps to §3 item 1, §9)

Q7. Hypervisor bugs (libvirt / vSphere SDK / XenAPI / Hyper-V API / KVM/QEMU itself) — out of scope, report upstream? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland — yes, out of scope; report upstream). (maps to §3 item 3)

Wave 2 — the two big insecure defaults

Q12. Highest-leverage question in the model. Are ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness and ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert shipped insecure-by-default? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92, DaanHoogland — https://github.com/apache/cloudstack/pull/2239):

• ca.plugin.root.auth.strictness defaults to true on new setups — the management server does require a Root-CA-signed client cert on :8250 and the cluster ports. It is false only after upgrading from a version released before Aug 2017 that predates the setting; the upgrade instructions document turning it on, so a leftover false is an upgrade-hygiene gap, not a shipped insecure default.
• ca.plugin.root.allow.expired.cert defaults to true as an operational concession to cert-rotation lag.

This resolution reshaped §3 item 1, §5a, §7 (the un-certed peer row), §8 P5, §9 false-friends, §10, §11, §11a, and §13. The earlier "assumes operator must flip per §10" framing is withdrawn.

Wave 3 — adjacent insecure defaults and admin-only surfaces

Q8. Is "a root admin with full RBAC role causes harm Y via a documented path Z" out of scope (proposed: yes, OUT-OF-MODEL: equivalent-harm)? In particular: runCustomAction, template upload, plugin registration, global config change, system-VM patching, system-VM console access. RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — yes; a root admin generally has direct access to most of these resources anyway → OUT-OF-MODEL: equivalent-harm. (maps to §3 item 4, §9)

Q9. Guest VM workloads — confirm that hypervisor-mediated side channels and resource-exhaustion-within-allocation are out of scope, and that the in-scope orchestration concerns are limited to "did CloudStack place the VM in the right VLAN / apply the right security group / route the right IP" (proposed)? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — yes; side channels + resource-exhaustion-within-allocation are out of scope. The one in-model case: CloudStack applying a wrong/insecure setting while launching or managing the guest (CloudStack must use correct/secure hypervisor settings). (DaanHoogland to confirm the boundary.) (maps to §3 item 5, §7, §9)

Q10. Templates / ISOs / user-data — confirm that there is no sandboxing of user-supplied OS images, and that user-data is intentionally a code-execution channel into the guest (proposed)? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — yes; userdata is the end user customizing their own guest OS (tenant-controlled data inside their own boundary), not a CloudStack-side injection surface. (maps to §3 item 6, §9)

Q11. Confirm the unsupported-component list: tools/marvin/, test/, developer/, quickcloud/, cloud-cli/, tools/{devcloud4,devcloud-kvm,appliance,checkstyle,transifex,bugs-wiki,...}, simulator hypervisor plugin. Anything to add or remove? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — exclude simulator and tools/appliance explicitly (out of scope for now; a future security-purpose tooling effort may revisit). (maps to §3 item 7)

Q17. Forward-header gating — the setting names are confirmed (maintainer: vishesh92): proxy.header.verify (the on/off gate), proxy.header.names (header names to consult), and proxy.cidr (CIDRs of the Remote_Addr values for which those headers are honoured). RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — proxy.header.verify is false by default; only when the connecting Remote_Addr ∈ proxy.cidr does CloudStack read the client IP from proxy.header.names. (maps to §5a, §6, §10)

Q18. 2FA — proposed: off by default, operator turns it on per domain / per user via enable.2fa.*. Confirm; and is "2FA disabled in production" a §10 violation or a deployment choice? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — deployment choice, not a §10 violation. Two domain-configurable global settings: enable.user.2fa (default false; whether 2FA is enabled) and mandate.user.2fa (default false; whether 2FA is mandatory — applies only when enable.user.2fa is true). (maps to §5a, §10)

Q19. User-authenticator plugins — encoder selection is governed by user.password.encoders.order (default PBKDF2,SHA256SALT,MD5,LDAP,SAML2,PLAINTEXT) and user.password.encoders.exclude (default MD5,LDAP,PLAINTEXT), so PBKDF2 is the effective hashing default and MD5/PLAINTEXT are retained only for verifying legacy hashes (maintainer: vishesh92). RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — a report against md5/plain-text hashing new passwords in a greenfield install is OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build: the default user.password.encoders.exclude (MD5,LDAP,PLAINTEXT) removes them from the effective set, so the supported greenfield encoders are PBKDF2,SHA256SALT,SAML2. (maps to §5a, §10, §11)

Q20. Integration API port :8096 — proposed: closed (port-zero) by default in production packaging, open only when explicitly configured; when open, it is unauthenticated by design. A report of "integration port allows admin commands without auth" is OUT-OF-MODEL: non-default-build if the operator opened it, else VALID. Confirm the default. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — default is 0 (disabled); 8096 is set only in test configurations. (maps to §5a, §10, §11a)

Wave 4 — environment, distributed model, false-friends

Q13. Network-fabric assumptions — proposed: at least four logical networks (management, public, guest, storage), with the management network as the trusted control plane. Is that the canonical model, or do you support more compressed topologies (single-fabric) in production? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — there are four logical networks (management, public, guest, storage); each may have multiple instances across topologies (e.g. multiple zones) and may be combined within physical networks, but all four logical types must be present for a functional system. (maps to §5, §10)

Q14. Clock-skew assumption for signature v3 expires enforcement — proposed: operator's responsibility to keep client + management-server clocks roughly in sync. Confirm. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — confirmed; operator responsibility (PMC to add to the security model page). (maps to §5)

Q15. Confirm the filesystem-permissions inventory for sensitive files: JCEKS keystore, Root CA private key, JaSypt key + IV, db.properties. Who owns them, what mode? RESOLVED (maintainer: vishesh92) — not a CSV inventory of every file in a running system; only the four sensitive artifacts named here (JCEKS keystore, Root CA private key, JaSypt key + IV, db.properties). Ownership is root (user) / cloud (group), mode read+write for the owner and read for the cloud group (i.e. 0640, root:cloud). (maps to §5, §10)

Q16. Confirm the "what CloudStack does not do to its host" inventory in §5: no child processes besides agent Script invocations / system VM provisioning; signal-handlers via servlet container default; environment-variable consumption confined to documented set. Anything to add? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — confirmed; nothing to add. (maps to §5)

Q21. API request size cap and cluster/agent RPC payload size cap — are these explicitly bounded, or "whatever Jetty / NIO defaults give"? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — the UI server sets an explicit cap, org.apache.cloudstack.ServerDaemon.DEFAULT_REQUEST_CONTENT_SIZE = 1048576 (1 MiB); for other components the sizes are capped by the upstream components used. (maps to §6, §9)

Q22. api.throttling.* and per-account resource limits — proposed: these are the entire DoS-protection surface, with no engine-level guard. Confirm. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — confirmed; enforced at the API access check, and api.throttling.enabled is false by default. (maps to §6, §9, §10)

Q23. Decompression behaviour on uploaded QCOW2 / RAW / OVA — proposed: no engine-side cap; per-account storage limits + hypervisor limits are the bound. Confirm. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — correct. (maps to §6, §9)

Q24. Same-host non-cloudstack UID — proposed: game-over, no defence claimed. Confirm. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland, vishesh92) — same-host non-cloudstack UID is game-over (no defence claimed; an operator at that level already controls the host, §3). On the related host-registration question: re-adding a host with the same IP updates the existing host record rather than creating a spoofed peer, and is gated by root-admin/operator access plus the keys/certs required to connect to the management server — adding a host directly without those fails (refinement tracked in apache/cloudstack#13182). So this is not an unauthenticated identity-spoof path. (maps to §7, §9)

Q25. Side-channel observers (CPU cache timing, branch-predictor / speculative-execution channels e.g. Spectre-class, hypervisor-shared microarchitectural channels) — out of scope (proposed). RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — agreed, out of scope. ("branch" = branch-predictor / speculative-execution side channels — clarified by producer.) (maps to §7, §9)

Q26. Byzantine-internal-peer threshold — confirm CloudStack makes no BFT claim, so any compromised cluster peer or agent with a valid Root-CA-issued cert is unbounded (proposed). RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — agreed; no BFT claim. (A quorum-style mitigation would only be meaningful in larger clusters, not single/dual-node — possible future feature proposal.) (maps to §7, §9)

Q27. §8 P9 memory-safety — JVM-bounded; is the reachability boundary correctly "in-model for the JSON API + B5 input; out-of-model for native hypervisor SDK bugs that surface as Throwable"? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — the reachability boundary is right, but §8 P9 must not imply CloudStack is Java-only — no implementation-language limitation is presumed (ocaml, python, bash run on hypervisors; go is used on the management server; the set may grow). The memory-safety claims hold for the JVM components only. (reflected in §8 P9.) (maps to §8 P9, §9)

Q28. §8 P10 listing-scope — confirm the §10 invariant "list* responses are scoped to the principal's domain/account/project". And: is information leak via error messages / async-job status / event log an in-model concern, or accepted? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — in-model: regular system logs (e.g. log4j) are exempt, but other than those, information leaks (via error messages, async-job status, event log) are a concern. (maps to §8 P10, §9, §11)

Q29. Data-at-rest encryption — confirm CloudStack delegates entirely to storage layer / hypervisor (LUKS, Ceph encryption, vSphere VM Encryption); no CloudStack-layer encryption of guest volumes. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland, vishesh92) — correct; delegated entirely to the storage layer / hypervisor. (maps to §9)

Q30. Constant-time comparison — confirm that only the API signature path uses ConstantTimeComparator. Login password compare, session cookie compare, console-token compare — none documented constant-time. Is that intentional? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — not intentional — the absence of constant-time comparison on the login-password / session-cookie / console-token paths is a lack of feature (hardening opportunity), not a by-design decision. (maps to §8, §9)

Q31. Time-of-check-to-time-of-use between RBAC check at API entry and orchestration on agent fleet — confirm mid-job RBAC revocation is not retroactively enforced (proposed). RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — agreed/confirmed. (maps to §9)

Q32. TLS posture on :8080 vs :8443 — confirm production deploys behind TLS on :8443 or behind a TLS-terminating reverse proxy; a bare :8080 HTTP API is dev-only. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — confirmed. (maps to §5a, §10)

Q33. security.encryption.key reuse across environments — confirm that reusing the JaSypt key + IV across staging and production is a documented misuse. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — indeed — confirmed misuse. (maps to §11)

Wave 5 — meta

Q34. Should this document live at docs/threat-model.md in apache/cloudstack, or as a page on cloudstack.apache.org/security/? Or both, with one canonical and the other linked? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland, vishesh92) — both: this document is the source of truth, and cloudstack.apache.org/security carries an excerpt plus a link to it. (meta)

Q35. Is there an existing CloudStack threat-model document (Confluence, internal, or a [SECURITY]-tagged dev@ thread) that this should reconcile against rather than supersede? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — cloudstack.apache.org/security/ is the only existing security model today; this document becomes its source of truth, with the page linking to it. (meta — §3.1a of the rubric)

Q36. What kind of change should trigger a revision (proposed list in §12 — confirm or correct)? RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — confirmed, plus add: a change in the extension mechanisms implemented by CloudStack (now reflected in §12). (meta, §12)

Q37. §11a is the highest-leverage section for the scan agent's suppression list. The current draft has 15 patterns; could the PMC populate §11a from recurring "not a vuln" closures on the security@apache.org ↔ CloudStack triage queue and on https://cloudstack.apache.org/security.html? Concrete asks: 3–5 patterns the PMC sees recur in inbound reports (e.g. "SSL bare on :8080 in a dev cluster", "agent port open without strictness flipped", "md5 authenticator left enabled after upgrade", "console URL appears in support ticket"). (meta — §11a)

Q38. Confirm the structural decision to keep the four satellite repos as separate delta models (cloudstack-go-threat-model-draft.md, cloudstack-cloudmonkey-threat-model-draft.md, cloudstack-terraform-provider-threat-model-draft.md, cloudstack-kubernetes-provider-threat-model-draft.md) inheriting §3 / §4 / §7 from this document. RESOLVED (maintainer: DaanHoogland) — confirmed; the satellites are not the system core (the core runs without them, they cannot run without the core), and there is an added hierarchy — cloudstack-go is a dependency of the other three. (meta, §3 item 9)

---

Appendix: SECURITY.md → §x back-map

CloudStack does not currently ship an in-repo SECURITY.md; the README.md section "Reporting Security Vulnerabilities" points to https://cloudstack.apache.org/security.html as the canonical disclosure landing page. The de facto security-policy artifacts are scattered:

Source	Claim	Lands in
README.md "Reporting Security Vulnerabilities"	report to security@apache.org; canonical page at cloudstack.apache.org/security.html	§1 reporting cross-reference
README.md "Notice of Cryptographic Software"	JaSypt, Bouncy Castle, JSch, OpenSwan, MySQL native encryption	§5 cryptography assumption, §8 P8
agent/conf/agent.properties (host, port, ssl.handshake.timeout, …)	agent ↔ management server transport on :8250	§2 component table, §4 B5
server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServer.java verifyRequest (lines ~980–1156)	HMAC-SHA1 signature + expires enforcement (enforce.post.requests.and.timestamps) + constant-time compare	§8 P1, §8 P3, §5a "enforce.post.requests.and.timestamps" row, §11a "SHA1 / constant-time" entries
server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServlet.java getClientAddress (lines 700–725)	forward-header gating by proxy.cidr / proxy.header.names when proxy.header.verify=true	§8 P6, §5a "proxy.header.verify" row
server/src/main/java/com/cloud/api/ApiServlet.java 2FA path (lines 360–582)	password + 2FA flow	§8 P2
framework/ca/.../CAService.java, plugins/ca/root-ca/.../RootCAProvider.java	Root CA generated at first boot; agent enrolment via SetupKeyStoreCommand	§4 B5, §8 P5, §5a strictness/allow-expired rows
plugins/ca/root-ca/.../RootCACustomTrustManager.java	authStrictness and allowExpiredCertificate semantics	§5a, §8 P5
plugins/acl/{static,dynamic,project}-role-based	RBAC backends	§8 P4
plugins/user-authenticators/{md5,sha256salted,pbkdf2,plain-text,ldap,saml2,oauth2}	pluggable user auth; selection via user.password.encoders.order / user.password.encoders.exclude	§2 caller-roles row, §5a "user.password.encoders.*" rows, §10 item 7
plugins/user-two-factor-authenticators/{static-pin,totp}	2FA backends	§5a "enable.user.2fa / mandate.user.2fa", §10 item 8
framework/security/.../KeysManager.java, KeystoreManager.java	security.encryption.key, security.encryption.iv (Hidden), application-secret JaSypt encryption	§8 P8, §5a, §10 item 6
agent/src/main/java/com/cloud/agent/Agent.java setupAgentKeystore (lines ~793–916)	agent receives Root CA-signed cert via SetupKeyStoreCommand and imports it	§4 B5, §8 P5
server/src/main/java/com/cloud/servlet/ConsoleProxyServlet.java, ConsoleProxyPasswordBasedEncryptor.java	signed encrypted console-proxy URL token	§4 B3, §8 P7
https://cloudstack.apache.org/security.html (website)	canonical disclosure landing page	§1 reporting cross-reference (note: not accessible from the producer's network at draft time; verify content with PMC)